As in every era, emperors and kings sought to strengthen their power through religion, laws, military force, and economic policies. Some were more successful than others. Meanwhile, in the era c.1450-c. 1750, some new states arose and other collapsed.
I. Existing Governments Maintain or Increase Their Power
A. China
1. The Qing government was concerned with Russia’s rising power to the west and a revival of the Mongols to the North.
i. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the Qing military went on campaigns to add land in Central Asia to separate China from Russia.
ii. The Qing military also conducted campaigns in Mongolia to end the threat of any future invasions from the Mongols.
iii. China was now one of the great land empires. It added the island of Taiwan in the East China Sea to its empire in the late seventeenth century.
i. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the Qing military went on campaigns to add land in Central Asia to separate China from Russia.
ii. The Qing military also conducted campaigns in Mongolia to end the threat of any future invasions from the Mongols.
iii. China was now one of the great land empires. It added the island of Taiwan in the East China Sea to its empire in the late seventeenth century.
2. In general, the Qing did not force the peoples they conquered to adopt Chinese practices. Instead they allowed local rulers to keep ruling, as long as they obeyed Qing policies
3. The Qing were also tolerant of local faiths and customs.
i. They did limit the movements of pastoral herders, significantly reducing the number of people who continued that way of life.
ii. The Qing also allowed the trade routes along the Silk Roads to wither away, preferring ocean trade to camel caravans over land.
i. They did limit the movements of pastoral herders, significantly reducing the number of people who continued that way of life.
ii. The Qing also allowed the trade routes along the Silk Roads to wither away, preferring ocean trade to camel caravans over land.
B. Russia
1. Russia was the other great land empire of Asia. The Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire were significant in their respective regions, but neither could match the size and strength of the huge land empires of Russia and China in this era.
2. Russia’s entry into the world affairs began with Ivan the Great, who ran off the last Mongol rulers in the late fifteenth century.
i. From that point on, Russian leaders expanded their territory through conquest, first to the east and then to the south and west. The largest area was to the east across Siberia.
Ø In the sixteenth century, Ivan the terrible began a conquest of Siberia that continued for one hundred years.
Ø From the late seventeenth century through the late eighteenth century, Peter the Great and Catherine the Great added territories north of the Black and Caspian Seas. Russian migrants flooded into these areas, greatly changing the cultural makeup of each of these regions.
ii. Like China, the Russian Empire ended the era of the nomadic people-it insisted on farming instead of pastoralism.
iii. Like the Chinese in Mongolia and Central Asia, and the Spanish and Portuguese in Latin America, Russia imposed requirements for local peasants to build roads and perform other public works projects.
iv. Like China- but unlike Latin America-Russia generally maintained a policy of religion toleration in the regions they conquered.
3. Czars Peter the Great and Catherine the Great not only expanded the Russian Empire’s landholdings, they also actively sought to make Russia a “modern” nation along the lines of those in Western Europe at the time. They were moderately successful on some fronts.
i. Peter built a new capital city, St. Petersburg (so humble of him to give it that name), which was modeled after the capitals of Western Europe.
ii. Peter and Catherine modernized the military and-like the Qing and other Chinese dynasties-invited foreign experts to advise the royal court.
iii. Catherine famously proclaimed Russia to be a European nation. This settled (at least for Russian foreign policy) the question of which direction the government would make a priority, Asia or Europe. Russia’s empire occupied both, and in fact, was mostly in asia
iv. Catherine also invited foreigners to settle in Russia and offered incentives for them to do so. Thousands of immigrants, especially from central Europe, took advantage of her offer. This policy was similar to the United States’ granting tracts of free land in the Midwest in the nineteenth century.
1. Even after decades of “westernization” by Peter and Catherine, two major institutions carried over unchanged into the nineteenth century in Russia: serfdom and absolute monarchy.
i. Neither leader ended serfdom (although western Europe had done so in the fifteenth century) nor did they take steps to limit the czar’s authority by allowing a constitution or by granting power to their parliament, as England had done.
2. Russia’s entry into the world affairs began with Ivan the Great, who ran off the last Mongol rulers in the late fifteenth century.
i. From that point on, Russian leaders expanded their territory through conquest, first to the east and then to the south and west. The largest area was to the east across Siberia.
Ø In the sixteenth century, Ivan the terrible began a conquest of Siberia that continued for one hundred years.
Ø From the late seventeenth century through the late eighteenth century, Peter the Great and Catherine the Great added territories north of the Black and Caspian Seas. Russian migrants flooded into these areas, greatly changing the cultural makeup of each of these regions.
ii. Like China, the Russian Empire ended the era of the nomadic people-it insisted on farming instead of pastoralism.
iii. Like the Chinese in Mongolia and Central Asia, and the Spanish and Portuguese in Latin America, Russia imposed requirements for local peasants to build roads and perform other public works projects.
iv. Like China- but unlike Latin America-Russia generally maintained a policy of religion toleration in the regions they conquered.
3. Czars Peter the Great and Catherine the Great not only expanded the Russian Empire’s landholdings, they also actively sought to make Russia a “modern” nation along the lines of those in Western Europe at the time. They were moderately successful on some fronts.
i. Peter built a new capital city, St. Petersburg (so humble of him to give it that name), which was modeled after the capitals of Western Europe.
ii. Peter and Catherine modernized the military and-like the Qing and other Chinese dynasties-invited foreign experts to advise the royal court.
iii. Catherine famously proclaimed Russia to be a European nation. This settled (at least for Russian foreign policy) the question of which direction the government would make a priority, Asia or Europe. Russia’s empire occupied both, and in fact, was mostly in asia
iv. Catherine also invited foreigners to settle in Russia and offered incentives for them to do so. Thousands of immigrants, especially from central Europe, took advantage of her offer. This policy was similar to the United States’ granting tracts of free land in the Midwest in the nineteenth century.
1. Even after decades of “westernization” by Peter and Catherine, two major institutions carried over unchanged into the nineteenth century in Russia: serfdom and absolute monarchy.
i. Neither leader ended serfdom (although western Europe had done so in the fifteenth century) nor did they take steps to limit the czar’s authority by allowing a constitution or by granting power to their parliament, as England had done.
C. Western Europe: Spain, England, France, and Holland
1. In Western Europe, in contrast to the development of land empires by Russia and China, sea empires were built by Spain, England, France, and Holland (also known as the Netherlands or Dutch) in the Americas.
2. The English, French, and Dutch colonies in the Caribbean and in what would become the United States became part of the mercantile system. Colonies provided raw materials as part of the European powers’ goal of global economic strength.
3. France, England, and Holland were also similar to Spain and Portugal with regard to their religious policies in the Americas. They converted natives to Christianity, but were generally less insistent on mass and immediate conversion than the Iberian nations.
2. The English, French, and Dutch colonies in the Caribbean and in what would become the United States became part of the mercantile system. Colonies provided raw materials as part of the European powers’ goal of global economic strength.
3. France, England, and Holland were also similar to Spain and Portugal with regard to their religious policies in the Americas. They converted natives to Christianity, but were generally less insistent on mass and immediate conversion than the Iberian nations.
1. Differences in methods of governance in the Americas developed as well.
i. Monarchs in Spain and Portugal were more directly involved in governing their colonies than were monarchs in England, France and the Netherlands.
ii. Viceroys were like assistant kings over their colonies and reported to the king in many matters. The result was a strict chain of command, with all kinds of matters, important and trivial, being sent to the king for a ruling. Given the huge distance between the Americas and Europe, an answer to a local question could take months.
iii. The Dutch, French, and British colonies were run differently from those in New Spain or Brazil, with more decision- making on the local level and little micromanagement from Europe.
i. Monarchs in Spain and Portugal were more directly involved in governing their colonies than were monarchs in England, France and the Netherlands.
ii. Viceroys were like assistant kings over their colonies and reported to the king in many matters. The result was a strict chain of command, with all kinds of matters, important and trivial, being sent to the king for a ruling. Given the huge distance between the Americas and Europe, an answer to a local question could take months.
iii. The Dutch, French, and British colonies were run differently from those in New Spain or Brazil, with more decision- making on the local level and little micromanagement from Europe.
- Historians say this style of governance is one reason why the British American colonies along the Atlantic coast gradually drew apart from the crown in London. American colonists became used to running their own affairs, fostering a spirit of independence from the crown.
5. In addition to their American empires, Spain and Portugal added territory in the Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
i. The Philippines had been claimed during the explorer Magellan’s round-the-world voyage in the early sixteenth century, and Spain was eager to have a base near the riches of China and a population to convert to Christianity.
ii. Portugal established some outputs along the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts of Africa and India, but was not able to achieve sweeping colonization as it had in Brazil.
i. The Philippines had been claimed during the explorer Magellan’s round-the-world voyage in the early sixteenth century, and Spain was eager to have a base near the riches of China and a population to convert to Christianity.
ii. Portugal established some outputs along the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts of Africa and India, but was not able to achieve sweeping colonization as it had in Brazil.
6. Absolute monarchies and a constitutional monarchy in Europe
i. Other major powers in Europe besides Russia, France, and Spain were under absolute monarchies during this era. In an absolute monarchy, all of the government’s power resides in one ruler. It was said that the king was above the law; that is, the law did not necessarily apply to the king. Each king had advisors and a parliament, but all served at the monarch’s pleasure.
ii. England’s system was a major exception to this trend. In 1689, its parliament firmly established a constitutional monarchy during the Glorious Revolution. Under that system, the monarch operated under the law and in tandem with the parliament.
Ø England’s style of constitutional monarchy eventually became the style of government all European kings would accept.
i. Other major powers in Europe besides Russia, France, and Spain were under absolute monarchies during this era. In an absolute monarchy, all of the government’s power resides in one ruler. It was said that the king was above the law; that is, the law did not necessarily apply to the king. Each king had advisors and a parliament, but all served at the monarch’s pleasure.
ii. England’s system was a major exception to this trend. In 1689, its parliament firmly established a constitutional monarchy during the Glorious Revolution. Under that system, the monarch operated under the law and in tandem with the parliament.
Ø England’s style of constitutional monarchy eventually became the style of government all European kings would accept.
D. The Ottoman Empire
1. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak of power during this era. The empire stretched across North Africa into Southwest Asia and north into modern Turkey, reaching almost to modern Austria.
i. The Ottomans defeated what was left of the Byzantine Empire when they took Constantinople in 1453, renamed it Istanbul, and continued westward into Eastern Europe.
ii. Geographically and culturally the Ottoman Empire was a link among Europe, Africa, and Asia, encompassing Christian, Jewish, and Muslim faiths.
2. Although the Muslim leaders of the empire did not require Christians and Jews to convert, they did demand that non-Muslim families in the Balkan region of southern Europe hand over young boys to become soldiers for the Turkish army.
i. These “recruits” were known as janissaries and their “recruitment” was devshirme system.
ii. Janissaries were trained in Islam and, although they were not Turks, they could rise to prominence in the empire if they showed loyalty and ability- and many did. Sometimes the hope of upward mobility was so strong that Christian parents willingly handed their sons over for janissary duty.
3. The Ottomans reached the limit of their expansion into Europe when they failed to conquer Vienna, Austria, in the early sixteenth century and again in the late seventeenth century. Like Russia, the Ottoman Empire struggled with its political identity as a part-Asian, part-European empire. Despite its history of battles with Christian Europe, it also sought inclusion in the European diplomatic sphere.
4. The specter of Muslim conquest of all Europe engulfed many western Christians, especially after the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453.
i. This concern for the fate of Christianity was one of the motivations for spreading the faith to the Americas after Columbus’s discoveries.
Another factor was the European fear that trade routes through Constantinople would be cut off by the Ottomans. Thus, the search for alternate routes to the “East” began.
i. The Ottomans defeated what was left of the Byzantine Empire when they took Constantinople in 1453, renamed it Istanbul, and continued westward into Eastern Europe.
ii. Geographically and culturally the Ottoman Empire was a link among Europe, Africa, and Asia, encompassing Christian, Jewish, and Muslim faiths.
2. Although the Muslim leaders of the empire did not require Christians and Jews to convert, they did demand that non-Muslim families in the Balkan region of southern Europe hand over young boys to become soldiers for the Turkish army.
i. These “recruits” were known as janissaries and their “recruitment” was devshirme system.
ii. Janissaries were trained in Islam and, although they were not Turks, they could rise to prominence in the empire if they showed loyalty and ability- and many did. Sometimes the hope of upward mobility was so strong that Christian parents willingly handed their sons over for janissary duty.
3. The Ottomans reached the limit of their expansion into Europe when they failed to conquer Vienna, Austria, in the early sixteenth century and again in the late seventeenth century. Like Russia, the Ottoman Empire struggled with its political identity as a part-Asian, part-European empire. Despite its history of battles with Christian Europe, it also sought inclusion in the European diplomatic sphere.
4. The specter of Muslim conquest of all Europe engulfed many western Christians, especially after the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453.
i. This concern for the fate of Christianity was one of the motivations for spreading the faith to the Americas after Columbus’s discoveries.
Another factor was the European fear that trade routes through Constantinople would be cut off by the Ottomans. Thus, the search for alternate routes to the “East” began.
II. New Governments in Asia and Europe
As new governments were established by European powers in the Americas, new governments were also established in other areas. Here are three that arose in other regions in the era c.1450-c.1750: Tokugawa Japan, Mughal India, and the Netherlands (Holland, the Dutch).
A. Tokugawa Japan
1. Europeans sailed to Japan in the mid-sixteenth century and took advantage of Japan’s feudal system and its lack of a strong central government.
i. Portugal sent missionaries and merchants, and was followed by Spain, the Netherlands (see below), and England. They exchanged silver for Japanese manufactured goods.
ii. At first, the Japanese welcomes the Europeans because they offered improved military and shipbuilding technology, and trade. The Japanese were especially interested in European guns.
iii. Jesuit missionaries from Portugal had limited success in converting Japanese to Christianity, but one city, Nagasaki, was receptive to the faith and many thousands became Christians.
i. Portugal sent missionaries and merchants, and was followed by Spain, the Netherlands (see below), and England. They exchanged silver for Japanese manufactured goods.
ii. At first, the Japanese welcomes the Europeans because they offered improved military and shipbuilding technology, and trade. The Japanese were especially interested in European guns.
iii. Jesuit missionaries from Portugal had limited success in converting Japanese to Christianity, but one city, Nagasaki, was receptive to the faith and many thousands became Christians.
1. In the early seventeenth century, the Tokugawa family reunited Japan through military conquests over its rivals.
i. The leader of the government was the military commander, known as the Shogun.
ii. The Tokugawa Shogunate ruled Japan until the mid-nineteenth century. It considered the influence of outsiders on Japanese culture to be detrimental, so one of the Shogun’s first decisions was to run the Europeans out.
iii. Christians were brutally persecuted and the faith faded in Japan.
iv. Only one Dutch ship was allowed to trade in one Japanese port once a year. This policy of isolation from Europe lasted until the mid-nineteenth century, when American Ships arrived in Edo (Tokyo) Bay to force open Japan’s markets.
i. The leader of the government was the military commander, known as the Shogun.
ii. The Tokugawa Shogunate ruled Japan until the mid-nineteenth century. It considered the influence of outsiders on Japanese culture to be detrimental, so one of the Shogun’s first decisions was to run the Europeans out.
iii. Christians were brutally persecuted and the faith faded in Japan.
iv. Only one Dutch ship was allowed to trade in one Japanese port once a year. This policy of isolation from Europe lasted until the mid-nineteenth century, when American Ships arrived in Edo (Tokyo) Bay to force open Japan’s markets.
B. Mughal India
Chapter 21 from Colleen Skadl
1. In the early sixteenth century, Muslims from Central Asia, who claimed to be descendants of the Mongol ruler Chinggis Khan, entered South Asia and established the Mughal Empire. (“Mughal” comes from the word “Mongol.”) Rare in Indian history, most of South Asia was united under a single government.
2. Its greatest ruler was Akbar. His greatest legacy was extending religious toleration to the 75 percent of the population that was Hindu.
3. In the beginning of the next era, c.1750-c.1900, a new outside invader-the British- arrived and established rule over South Asia, reducing Mughal leaders to ceremonial duties.
4. Like the Ottomans, the Mughals were Muslim rulers of an empire. Unlike the Ottomans, the Mughals’ faith was in the minority in their own empire. One of the world’s most iconic buildings, the Taj Mahal, was built by a Muslim in the heart of Hindu territory.
2. Its greatest ruler was Akbar. His greatest legacy was extending religious toleration to the 75 percent of the population that was Hindu.
3. In the beginning of the next era, c.1750-c.1900, a new outside invader-the British- arrived and established rule over South Asia, reducing Mughal leaders to ceremonial duties.
4. Like the Ottomans, the Mughals were Muslim rulers of an empire. Unlike the Ottomans, the Mughals’ faith was in the minority in their own empire. One of the world’s most iconic buildings, the Taj Mahal, was built by a Muslim in the heart of Hindu territory.
C. The Netherlands
1. A small European nation with a global empire, the Netherlands’ greatest strength was in the art of the deal. Like the Phoenicians from ancient times, they knew how to get what they wanted, but didn’t produce much of their own goods to exchange with others.
2. The Netherlands’ economic policies were pro-business, encouraging bank loans, new commercial enterprises, and shipping, with little government interference.
3. The Dutch were perfectly positioned to be a major player in the global economy begun by Portugal and Spain. While the Dutch were slow to “go global”- about one hundred years after their Iberian rivals-once they did, they moved quickly.
i. The Dutch sent warships and soldiers under the flag of the Dutch East India Company-also known as the VOC-to take Portuguese outposts in the Indian Ocean region.
ii. They came to dominate European trade with the “Spice Islands” of present- day Indonesia. “Dutch” chocolate and “java” came from this area.
4. While The Netherlands government’s main focus was trade in Southeast Asia, it did own some sugarcane plantations in the Caribbean. The Netherlands also sent colonist to North America, to a place called New Netherlands, with its main outpost of New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. In the 1660s, the British took New Amsterdam and renamed it New York.
2. The Netherlands’ economic policies were pro-business, encouraging bank loans, new commercial enterprises, and shipping, with little government interference.
3. The Dutch were perfectly positioned to be a major player in the global economy begun by Portugal and Spain. While the Dutch were slow to “go global”- about one hundred years after their Iberian rivals-once they did, they moved quickly.
i. The Dutch sent warships and soldiers under the flag of the Dutch East India Company-also known as the VOC-to take Portuguese outposts in the Indian Ocean region.
ii. They came to dominate European trade with the “Spice Islands” of present- day Indonesia. “Dutch” chocolate and “java” came from this area.
4. While The Netherlands government’s main focus was trade in Southeast Asia, it did own some sugarcane plantations in the Caribbean. The Netherlands also sent colonist to North America, to a place called New Netherlands, with its main outpost of New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. In the 1660s, the British took New Amsterdam and renamed it New York.
III. The Collapse of Empires
A. Aztecs
1. In fourteenth-century Mesoamerica, a new empire arose, the Aztec. You have learned about their capital, Tenochtitlan, situated in the middle of Lake Texoco, and about their unique farming method of floating human-made islands.
2. The Aztec Empire expanded through conquest and demanded tribute from the vanquished people.
i. Little effort was made to assimilate the conquered groups into the empire as long as tribute and trade goods flowed into the Aztec treasury.
ii. Trade was an important part of Aztec society, with precious metals, feathers, food, and people for sale in large marketplaces.
3. Aztec rulers claimed to be descended from the gods, so government and religion intertwined closely, not unlike in ancient Egypt.
i. Human sacrifice was a vital part of the Aztec faith. The belief was that the gods needed human blood to insure that the sun rose every day.
ii. Slaves and captured enemy warriors were frequently offered up in these blood sacrifices, creating the never-ending need for human subjects.
4. By the early sixteenth century, the Aztecs faced internal pressures die to unrest stirring among the conquered people of the empire, who were increasingly angry about the high degree of tribute that in turn caused them economic hardship.
5. At the same time, outside pressure was forcefully applied with the arrival of Spanish conquistadors and their superior weapons and desire for gold. The Aztec empire crumbled astonishingly fast.
2. The Aztec Empire expanded through conquest and demanded tribute from the vanquished people.
i. Little effort was made to assimilate the conquered groups into the empire as long as tribute and trade goods flowed into the Aztec treasury.
ii. Trade was an important part of Aztec society, with precious metals, feathers, food, and people for sale in large marketplaces.
3. Aztec rulers claimed to be descended from the gods, so government and religion intertwined closely, not unlike in ancient Egypt.
i. Human sacrifice was a vital part of the Aztec faith. The belief was that the gods needed human blood to insure that the sun rose every day.
ii. Slaves and captured enemy warriors were frequently offered up in these blood sacrifices, creating the never-ending need for human subjects.
4. By the early sixteenth century, the Aztecs faced internal pressures die to unrest stirring among the conquered people of the empire, who were increasingly angry about the high degree of tribute that in turn caused them economic hardship.
5. At the same time, outside pressure was forcefully applied with the arrival of Spanish conquistadors and their superior weapons and desire for gold. The Aztec empire crumbled astonishingly fast.
B. Inca
1. The largest empire of the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans was governed by the Inca from their capital Cuzco, in the Andes Mountains.
i. Lasting for only about one hundred years, from the mid-fifteenth century to the mid-sixteenth century, the Inca Empire stretched along most of the Pacific coast of South America.
ii. Like the Aztecs, the Inca expanded their empire through military conquest and the tribute they demanded from the people they defeated. They, too, had an emperor who claimed to be descended from the gods.
iii. Unlike the Aztecs, the Inca incorporated the vanquished into the empire, requiring, for example, that the defeated people learn the Incan Language.
2. Under the Incan system, all land, food, and manufactured products were owned by the government.
i. The Inca people were required to contribute apportion of their goods to the government for redistribution by the large Inca bureaucracy. Historians refer to this as “Inca socialism.”
3. One of the most interesting features of Incan civilization was their record-keeping system on knotted strings, known as quipu. The Accounting system, kept by the government bureaucracy, was based on the number and position of knots and he color of the strings in the cords.
4. Like the Aztecs, the Inca were also facing internal strife when the Spanish arrived in the 1530s.
i. A civil war for control of the throne was raging and at about the same time smallpox began to decimate the population. These stresses made the empire susceptible to outside invasion, and it came in the form of less than 200 well-armed conquistadors.
ii. The emperor was killed and the age of the Inca Empire was over.
i. Lasting for only about one hundred years, from the mid-fifteenth century to the mid-sixteenth century, the Inca Empire stretched along most of the Pacific coast of South America.
ii. Like the Aztecs, the Inca expanded their empire through military conquest and the tribute they demanded from the people they defeated. They, too, had an emperor who claimed to be descended from the gods.
iii. Unlike the Aztecs, the Inca incorporated the vanquished into the empire, requiring, for example, that the defeated people learn the Incan Language.
2. Under the Incan system, all land, food, and manufactured products were owned by the government.
i. The Inca people were required to contribute apportion of their goods to the government for redistribution by the large Inca bureaucracy. Historians refer to this as “Inca socialism.”
3. One of the most interesting features of Incan civilization was their record-keeping system on knotted strings, known as quipu. The Accounting system, kept by the government bureaucracy, was based on the number and position of knots and he color of the strings in the cords.
4. Like the Aztecs, the Inca were also facing internal strife when the Spanish arrived in the 1530s.
i. A civil war for control of the throne was raging and at about the same time smallpox began to decimate the population. These stresses made the empire susceptible to outside invasion, and it came in the form of less than 200 well-armed conquistadors.
ii. The emperor was killed and the age of the Inca Empire was over.
C. Byzantine
1. After centuries of welfare with Muslim forces, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to only the great cultural and trading center of Constantinople. In 1453, its defenders succumbed to superior forces from the Ottoman Empire, ending a civilization that had existed on its own since the fall of Rome in 476 CE, and as part of the Roman Empire for almost half a millennium before that.
2. The greatest symbol of the transfer of power from the Christians to the Muslims in Constantinople/Istanbul was the Hagia Sophia, an Eastern Orthodox Christian Church, which was converted into a mosque.
2. The greatest symbol of the transfer of power from the Christians to the Muslims in Constantinople/Istanbul was the Hagia Sophia, an Eastern Orthodox Christian Church, which was converted into a mosque.
Watch this video to understand the causes fall of Byzantine.