We have at last arrived at the time when we can talk about truly global history! In era c. 1450-c.1750, the Americas and Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific Islands) joined Eurasia in networks and exchange. The encounters between the people from Europe and the Americas had profound social, political, economic, demographic, and environmental effects on both sides of the Atlantic, and quickly, the world.
I. European Exploration Expands
A. Factors That Led the Europeans to Cross the Atlantic to the Americas
1. Advances in European ship design and navigation
1. Advances in European ship design and navigation
- Benefits to Europe from trade with Asia by the end of the previous era included not only spices, but also technology. Some European kings were quick to use the newly acquired methods in shipbuilding (caravels) and navigation (wind and current patterns) to expand their new kingdoms.
- The compass, more accurate maps, the astrolabe ( used to determine latitude), improved rudder and sails - all tranferred from Asia - contributed to the western Europe's ability to make long distance sailing expeditions.
European technological developments in cartography and navigation built on previous knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds, and included the production of new tools (astrolabe, new maps), innovations in ship designs (caravels), and an improved understanding of global wind and currents patterns — all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible
2. Europeans desired to spread the Christian faith.
> The Protestant Reformation of the early 1500s split the Western Christian Church, but it also caused a renewed missionary vigor among the Catholic monarchs in western Europe who now saw not only Muslims as competitors but also Protestants.
> It became a matter of great importance for Catholic monarchs to evengelize the world before Protestants could.
- Motivated by competition from Muslim faith, western European Christians- especially those of Portugal and Spain, who had recently completed the reconquista ("reconquering") of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslim control- sought to spread their gospel to new areas. They targeted South and East Asia, where conversion had thus far been limited. Expeditions always carried missionaries along.
- Changes in Christianity sparked additional motivation to carry the Gospel.
> The Protestant Reformation of the early 1500s split the Western Christian Church, but it also caused a renewed missionary vigor among the Catholic monarchs in western Europe who now saw not only Muslims as competitors but also Protestants.
> It became a matter of great importance for Catholic monarchs to evengelize the world before Protestants could.
3. Trade was also a major motivator. The Europeans saw how the flow of silk, technology, and spices westward from Asia increased the wealth in Europe tremendously, triggered the Renaissance, and sparked revival of cities. They hoped to increase their wealth with trade goods from the Americas.
4. Why Western Europe and Not Eastern Europe?
- Like the nations in western Europe, Russia also had access to new shipping technologies and sent ships north into the Arctic Oceans seeking a route to East Asia. Icy conditions, however, made that passage impossible.
- At the same time, Russia was expanding its land empire across Siberia and did not enter the Pacific until the seventeenth century.
- European rivals closer to the Atlantic had geographic advantages when it cam to exploring the Americas.
- Other nations in central and eastern Europe had limited access to the sea and/or were not yet organized well enough to send expensive expeditions around the world.
5. Why Not China?
- In the early fifteenth century, China sent fleets of ships to the Indian Ocean region as a show of might and because of the sheer curiosity about the world beyond its borders. They sent enormous treasure ships that were 400 feet long and carried thousands of sailors commanded by the Chinese Muslim Admiral Zheng He. (Columbus's biggest ship, Santa Maria, was about 70 feet long.). See below.
- Zeng he brought back to the Ming court all kinds of animals, plands, goods, and people from Africa and India, but after 28 years and three explorations, the Ming Emperor's advisers convinced him that the expeditions were too expensive and that China had little to gain from them. After all, they reasoned, the Middle kingdoms was the greatest in the world. Thus, as the Portugues began a series of explorations along Africa's west coast, China chose to withdraw its fleet from Indian Ocean. China had the capacity to sail in force anywhere it wanted to, and refused.
II. Portugal Leads the Way to New Lands; Spain Follows
A. Geography and European Exploration
- Why were the Portugal and Spain the first Europeans nations to ventre south (Portugal) and west (Spain) into the Atlantic?
- First, geography. Both Portugal and Spain have coasts that jutted farther into the Atlantic than other European nations. Portugal's proximity to Africa made southern exploration a logical target.(Look at the first map on top of this page).
- Second, the newly united nation-state of Spain had just completed a centuries long campaign to restore the Iberian Peninsula to Christian control. Thus, Spain's leaders experienced a great deal of patriotic energy and were willing to spend money to expand their economic, religious, and political influence beyond their borders.
- Third, geography played another important part because Italy's position in the middle of the Mediterranean meant it was ideally situated to be at the center of exchanges between western Europe and the "East"- the ports of the eastern Mediterranean and their sought -after goods. Portugal and Spain wanted to bypass the Italian control of Trade between East and West, so they searched for alternate routes to Asia, for instance, around Africa (Portugal) and west across the Atlantic (Spain).
B. Portugal Charts the western Coast of Africa
1. Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator sent ship after ship down the western coast of Africa looking for a route to the Indies so that his nation could benefit from direct trade with south Asia.
- Along the way, the Portuguese chartered the Madeira Islands and the Azores Islands.
In 1488, Portuguese ships reached and rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Afriica and for the next ten years, Portuguese and Arab merchants interacted in the Indian Ocean area.
In the early 1400s, the Portuguese gained control over the gold and ivory trade networks. - In 1498, Vasco de Gama succeeded in making it to India and returned to Portugal with spices and other goods. The Portuguese finally established their link to the East. But, had the Spanish beaten them?
C. The Spanish Sought a Different Route to the East
1. The Spanish did not have much choice because the Portuguese and Italians had already claimed their own routes.
- Since the only landmass on Earth was Afro-Eurasia, sailing west across the Atlantic seemed logical in that it would bring a ship straight to the islands near India, the Indies, and maybe even China ("Cathay").
- Columbus convinced the Spanish royals, Ferdinand and Isabella, to fund an expedition for God and for gold -- in this case, "gold" meant anything of great value, like spices, silk, or even gold. For himself, Columbus sought glory. (Thus we get the famous " Three G's of Exploration" -- God, glory, and gold.)
- If Columbus made it to the East and back, he would put Spain ahead of Portugal, who in 1492, was still trying to find India.
- After Spain began to accumulate great agricultural; and mining wealth from the Americas, it seemed Columbus's voyages were not the "mistake" everyone initially thought they had been.
III. The Columbian Exchange's Effect on the World
Historians refer to the transfer of animals, plants, diseases, and people that resulted from contacts between Europeans and Amerindians (Native Americans in bothe North and South America) as the Columbian Exchange after the explorer Columbus, who started the process in 1492. Note that it was a two way exchange to and from the Americas
A. Animals and Plants of the Columbian Exchange
A. Animals and Plants of the Columbian Exchange
1. From Afro-Eurasia to the Americas: Europeans brought horses, pigs, chickens, cows, sugarcane, bananas, wheat, and rice, to name just a few. The effects on the environment were enormous.
- The introduction of horses to the Americas changed the cultures of almost every native American group.
- Sugarcane plantations throughout the Caribbean helped create rich European kingdoms, and resulted in the importation of slaves from Africa.
- The potato became popular in Europe -- it stored well on ships and grew in wide variety of soils and climates.
- Maize became a staple for both Africa and China.
- These American foods created an unprecedented population growth where ever they were planted.
B. Diseases Resulting from Columbian Exchange
1. The greatest effect on the people of the Americas was the introduction of diseases that had not existed before the arrival of the Europeans.
- Smallpox, in particular, eradicated whole villages of native people, creating a demographic catastrophe that had not been equaled in all of history. It is estimated that aproximately 90% of the population of the Americas died from these newly introduced deadly diseases.
- This depopulation created a huge open spaces for Europeans to conquer and settle with little resistance.
C. People Migrated to the Americas During the Columbian Exchange
1. Most people migrated voluntarily, but many Africans were forcibly taken to the Americas to serve as slaves. Some Europeans ( from the Spanish -held Canary Islands) were also resettled to the Americas against their will as colonists and /or indentured servants.
2. Spanish explorers were not settlers and few women made the early voyages. Mixed -race children were born out of relationships between the Spaniards and native women. Slowly, European women made the dangerous trip to the Americas, and European-only families began to form. Thus, a new social hierarchy was created, with skin color being the determining factor in status. (See more about this in Changes in Society c.1450-c.1750)
3. Europeans created large, highly profitable sugarcane plantations in the Caribbean but, because of the virtual elimination of natives, a great shortage of labor resulted.
2. Spanish explorers were not settlers and few women made the early voyages. Mixed -race children were born out of relationships between the Spaniards and native women. Slowly, European women made the dangerous trip to the Americas, and European-only families began to form. Thus, a new social hierarchy was created, with skin color being the determining factor in status. (See more about this in Changes in Society c.1450-c.1750)
3. Europeans created large, highly profitable sugarcane plantations in the Caribbean but, because of the virtual elimination of natives, a great shortage of labor resulted.
- Portugal was first among Europeans nations to enslave Africans along Africa's Atlantic coast, and haul them to their sugarcane plantations in Brazil.
- Spain followed, buying Africans from the merchants along the "Slave Coast " and transporting them in packed ships across the Atlantic (The Middle Passage) to the Caribbean to work producing sugar.
D. Religions of the Columbian Exchange
1. The Christian missionaries accompanied the explorers and settlers to the Americas.
- In their zeal to spread the holy word, Catholic clergy in both the Portuguese and Spanish territories held mass baptism with little religious instruction.
- This meant the traditions of the original faiths of the natives continued with Columbian beliefs woven in.
E. Precious Metals of the Columbian Exchange
1. Gold from central Mexico went straight into Spanish monarch's treasury, but it was silver from Peru that became the global metal of exchange.
- Silver from the Americas was traded for Asian spices, silk, and all the other commodities Europeans had come to desire. Click here to learn more about how silver impacted the global trade and society.
- Japan was brought into this network because it, too, had silver mines. China and India were, of course, on the receiving end of the most of the silver.
- For the first time, a global network of exchange was established.
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IV. Latin America and the Atlantic World
A. Social Shifts in Latin America
1. Latin America society was the result blending of European, African, and Native american cultures. Food, faith, family structures., and racial identities were affected by the contacts among these people over many centuries.
1. Latin America society was the result blending of European, African, and Native american cultures. Food, faith, family structures., and racial identities were affected by the contacts among these people over many centuries.
B. Economic and the Atlantic World
1. The Atlantic world is described by the interaction among four continents on both sides of the Atlantic: North America, South America, Europe, and Africa.
2. The Thirteen Colonies
- Latin America is, of course, also part of the Atlantic world.
- England, France, and, to the lesser extent, Netherlands (Holland/the Dutch) followed Spain and Portugal in establishing colonies in the Americas. All held islands in the Caribbean with sugar plantations and competed with each other in that global market.
2. The Thirteen Colonies
- For most of this era, the English, French, and Dutch colonies along the north atlantic coast of North America were an afterthought. One historians called the a " colonial backwater." Thats because they were not a big deal compared to the wealth of metals and sugar coming out of Latin America.
- The biggest economic contribution from the colonies of upper North America -- remember, the Caribbean and Mexico are considered part of North America, too. Cod, a kind of fish was enormously popular among the people on both sides of the Atlantic. Its presence off the coast of Massachusetts, near Cape Cod, made Europeans monarchs give colonization there a try.
The exchange of products between European countries and their colonies changed economic relations around the world. European countries saw their colonies as a way to get rich.
This new view of the colonies was part of an economic system called mercantilism—a system in which a government controls all economic activity in a country and its colonies to make the government stronger and richer. In the 1500s a country’s strength was measured by how much gold and silver it had. Under mercantilism, then, governments did everything they could to get more of these precious metals. Mercantilism was the main economic policy in Europe between 1500 and 1800.
To stay rich, European countries tried to export more goods than they imported. The relationship of goods imported to goods exported is known as a country’s balance of trade. The colonies played a key role in this balance of trade. Believing that colonies existed to help the ruling country, Europeans didn't let colonies trade with other countries. They didn't want their colonies’ money going to other nations. Therefore, the governments put taxes or tariffs on imported products from rival nations. They also went into business with private companies who traded globally. The British East India Company (EIC) is an important example. With the cooperation of the government, the British EIC made and enforced their own laws, approved ship schedules and cargoes, and negotiated commerce agreements with rulers all over the world.
European countries used their colonies to acquire raw materials such as wood, furs, cotton, and dyes. This way they didn’t have to buy raw materials from competing countries. In addition, they didn’t allow their colonies to manufacture goods. That way they could take raw materials from their colonies and sell manufactured goods back to them. Manufactured goods were more valuable than raw materials were, so the colonies were good for the European countries’ balance of trade.
Trade also created markets for manufactured goods. As a result, manufacturing in Europe, especially cottage industries, increased. Cottage industry was a system in which family members worked in their homes to make part of a product. A businessperson gave each family the materials it needed. The businessperson made money by selling the final product.
This new view of the colonies was part of an economic system called mercantilism—a system in which a government controls all economic activity in a country and its colonies to make the government stronger and richer. In the 1500s a country’s strength was measured by how much gold and silver it had. Under mercantilism, then, governments did everything they could to get more of these precious metals. Mercantilism was the main economic policy in Europe between 1500 and 1800.
To stay rich, European countries tried to export more goods than they imported. The relationship of goods imported to goods exported is known as a country’s balance of trade. The colonies played a key role in this balance of trade. Believing that colonies existed to help the ruling country, Europeans didn't let colonies trade with other countries. They didn't want their colonies’ money going to other nations. Therefore, the governments put taxes or tariffs on imported products from rival nations. They also went into business with private companies who traded globally. The British East India Company (EIC) is an important example. With the cooperation of the government, the British EIC made and enforced their own laws, approved ship schedules and cargoes, and negotiated commerce agreements with rulers all over the world.
European countries used their colonies to acquire raw materials such as wood, furs, cotton, and dyes. This way they didn’t have to buy raw materials from competing countries. In addition, they didn’t allow their colonies to manufacture goods. That way they could take raw materials from their colonies and sell manufactured goods back to them. Manufactured goods were more valuable than raw materials were, so the colonies were good for the European countries’ balance of trade.
Trade also created markets for manufactured goods. As a result, manufacturing in Europe, especially cottage industries, increased. Cottage industry was a system in which family members worked in their homes to make part of a product. A businessperson gave each family the materials it needed. The businessperson made money by selling the final product.
4. Triangular Trade Also known a the Atlantic System
Mercantilism created new trading patterns around the world. In the 1600s and 1700s trade routes connected Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Many of these routes linked European countries with their colonies. One major trading pattern involved the exchange of raw materials, manufactured products, and slaves among Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This particular trade network became known as the triangular trade.
The Atlantic slave trade was a major part of the trade network. The Portuguese, Dutch, and English all were active in the slave trade. Slavery had been practiced in many places, including Africa, long before Europeans came. But the Atlantic slave trade was different in its size and its process. European traders crammed enslaved Africans on ships for the long voyage to the Americas. They chained people together, often without enough food or water. People got sick, and many died.
Between the late 1500s and early 1800s Europeans shipped millions of enslaved Africans to colonies in the New World. Most of these slaves were sent to South America and the Caribbean.
The Atlantic slave trade was a major part of the trade network. The Portuguese, Dutch, and English all were active in the slave trade. Slavery had been practiced in many places, including Africa, long before Europeans came. But the Atlantic slave trade was different in its size and its process. European traders crammed enslaved Africans on ships for the long voyage to the Americas. They chained people together, often without enough food or water. People got sick, and many died.
Between the late 1500s and early 1800s Europeans shipped millions of enslaved Africans to colonies in the New World. Most of these slaves were sent to South America and the Caribbean.
V. Continuities in the Global Networks Exchange
The era c. 1450 -c. 1750 isn't "all Atlantic, all the time." And it isn't only about changes you have learned about were vast.
A. Continuities in Religion
1. Islam continued to spread as it had in the earlier era into sub-Saharan regions and into East and Southeast Asia, including parts of the Philippines.
2. Buddhism continued to move across Southeast Asia and into parts of Central Asia.
3. Hinduism continued to be the core religion of India.
4. People yet to be contacted by Buddhists, Christians, or Muslims continued to practice their indigenous faiths.
1. Islam continued to spread as it had in the earlier era into sub-Saharan regions and into East and Southeast Asia, including parts of the Philippines.
2. Buddhism continued to move across Southeast Asia and into parts of Central Asia.
3. Hinduism continued to be the core religion of India.
4. People yet to be contacted by Buddhists, Christians, or Muslims continued to practice their indigenous faiths.
B. Continuities in Trade and Agriculture
1. In the Indian Ocean region, trade among the traditional participants from East Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia continued.
2. European merchants learned they could join in when they cooperated with local rulers of port cities in this region because they were unable to dominate this long-distance trade culture.
3. The volume of Atlantic World trade eventually surpassed that of the Indian Ocean network by the middle of this era.
4. Most people around the world remained as farmers in this era. Many were subsistence farmers - that is, they grew enough for their family with a little leftover to sell.
5. Other farmers grew a single crop for the landowners who exported the food- the beginning of commercial farming.
6. Changes in crops that were grown occurred because of the influx of new foods from the Americas-- corn in China, for example.
1. In the Indian Ocean region, trade among the traditional participants from East Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia continued.
2. European merchants learned they could join in when they cooperated with local rulers of port cities in this region because they were unable to dominate this long-distance trade culture.
3. The volume of Atlantic World trade eventually surpassed that of the Indian Ocean network by the middle of this era.
4. Most people around the world remained as farmers in this era. Many were subsistence farmers - that is, they grew enough for their family with a little leftover to sell.
5. Other farmers grew a single crop for the landowners who exported the food- the beginning of commercial farming.
6. Changes in crops that were grown occurred because of the influx of new foods from the Americas-- corn in China, for example.
C. Continuities in Migration
1. On the eve of European contacts, migration by indigenous peoples had largely ended, reaching the islands of Hawaii by c. 900, with a possible second wave of Tahitian settlers in c. 1300 (Polynesian Migration)
2. In Southeast Africa, Bantu-speaking people built the city complex of Great Zimbabwe
2. In Southeast Africa, Bantu-speaking people built the city complex of Great Zimbabwe
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